Laparoscopic surgery, also called minimally invasive or “keyhole” surgery, is a modern surgical technique that uses small incisions, a camera, and specialized instruments to perform procedures inside the abdomen or pelvis. Compared to traditional open surgery, it results in less pain, smaller scars, and a faster recovery The procedure During a laparoscopic procedure, a surgeon typically follows these steps: The patient is given general anesthesia to relax muscles and prevent pain. A small incision, usually near the belly button, is made. A tube is inserted to fill the abdominal cavity with carbon dioxide gas. This inflates the area, separating the abdominal wall from the organs for a clearer view. A laparoscope—a thin tube with a camera and light—is inserted through the incision. Images from the camera are projected onto a high-definition monitor, guiding the surgeon through the operation. One or more additional small incisions are made to insert other surgical instruments. After the procedure is complete, the instruments are removed, the gas is released, and the incisions are closed with stitches or surgical glue. Common uses and types of surgery Laparoscopy can be used for both diagnostic purposes (to find a problem) and to perform surgery. Common uses include: Gallbladder removal (cholecystectomy): A common laparoscopic procedure for removing a diseased gallbladder. Appendectomy: The surgical removal of an inflamed appendix. Hernia repair: For repairing various types of hernias, particularly in the abdomen. Gynecological procedures: Such as treating endometriosis, removing ovarian cysts, performing a hysterectomy, or tubal ligation (female sterilization). Gastrointestinal procedures: Including anti-reflux surgery (fundoplication), colon surgery (colectomy), and gastric bypass surgery. Urological procedures: For removing a kidney (nephrectomy) or treating other urinary tract conditions. Diagnostic evaluations: To investigate unexplained abdominal or pelvic pain, growths, infections, or assess the stage of certain cancers. Benefits and risks Benefits Compared to traditional open surgery, laparoscopic surgery offers several advantages: Smaller incisions and scars: The small cuts are less invasive and result in smaller scars. Less pain: Smaller incisions cause less tissue damage, leading to a quicker and more comfortable recovery. Reduced risk of infection and bleeding: Limited exposure of internal organs minimizes the risk of contamination and blood loss. Shorter hospital stay: Many patients can be discharged the same day, and hospital stays are generally shorter. Faster recovery: Patients can return to normal activities much sooner. Risks While generally safe, laparoscopic surgery does carry some risks, which are usually rare: Infection and bleeding: At the incision sites. Injury to organs or blood vessels: This can happen from the instruments and is more likely in patients with previous abdominal surgeries. Shoulder pain: Referred pain in the shoulder is common for a couple of days due to the carbon dioxide gas irritating nerves. Abdominal bloating: From the gas used during the procedure. Complications from anesthesia: As with any surgical procedure. Recovery Recovery varies depending on the procedure's complexity, but most patients experience a faster recovery than with open surgery. Pain management: Mild pain around the incision sites and in the shoulder is common but can be managed with medication. Activity: Light walking is encouraged soon after surgery to promote circulation. Strenuous activity should be avoided for several weeks. Diet: A fluid and soft-food diet may be recommended initially. Normal eating can resume as tolerated. Returning to work: Many patients can return to work within a few days to a few weeks.

Laser surgery is a medical procedure that uses concentrated, high-intensity light beams instead of a traditional scalpel to cut, vaporize, or remove tissue. Because of its precision and minimally invasive nature, laser surgery is used across a wide range of medical specialties How it works Laser surgery works on the principle of selective photothermolysis, where a specific wavelength of light is targeted at certain tissue cells that contain light-absorbing molecules called chromophores. The laser light is absorbed by the chromophores in the target tissue. The energy is converted into heat, damaging or destroying the targeted cells while leaving surrounding healthy tissue unharmed. Different types of lasers are used depending on the procedure and the tissue being treated. For example, a CO2 laser is often used for surface-level procedures, while a deeper-penetrating Nd:YAG laser can be used for internal issues. Common applications Laser surgery is used for both cosmetic and medical purposes. Ophthalmology (Eye Surgery): LASIK: Reshapes the cornea to correct vision problems like nearsightedness (myopia), farsightedness (hyperopia), and astigmatism. Photorefractive keratectomy (PRK): Corrects vision by reshaping the cornea without creating a flap. Retinal repair: Seals retinal tears and leaking blood vessels, often used for diabetic retinopathy or macular degeneration. Glaucoma: Treats the eye's drainage system to relieve pressure. Cataracts: Used in a laser-assisted procedure to help remove the cloudy lens. Dermatology and Cosmetic Surgery: Skin resurfacing: Reduces the appearance of wrinkles, scars, and blemishes. Tattoo and hair removal: Targets pigments in the skin or hair follicles to remove them. Lesion removal: Gets rid of warts, moles, and certain skin cancers. Vascular lesion removal: Treats prominent blood vessels and birthmarks. Oncology (Cancer Treatment): Tumor removal and destruction: Can shrink or destroy tumors and precancerous growths. Photodynamic therapy (PDT): Uses a laser to activate a light-sensitive drug that kills cancer cells. Other specialties: Gastroenterology: Removes early-stage gastrointestinal cancers and controls bleeding ulcers. Urology: Breaks up kidney and gallstones into smaller fragments (laser lithotripsy). Dentistry: Prepares cavities, treats gum disease, and performs other soft-tissue procedures. Benefits and risks Benefits: High precision: Allows surgeons to work on a very small area with minimal damage to surrounding tissue. Minimally invasive: Often results in less bleeding, pain, and scarring compared to traditional surgery. Faster recovery: Patients typically experience shorter recovery times and can return home sooner. Risks: Potential side effects: These can include pain, swelling, scarring, infection, and skin discoloration. Many are temporary, such as dry eyes and glare following LASIK. Possible complications: Though rare, complications can include under or over-correction in vision, flap problems in LASIK, and vision loss. Cost: Many laser procedures, especially cosmetic ones, can be expensive and may not be covered by insurance. Patient eligibility: Not everyone is a suitable candidate. A thorough evaluation by a doctor is necessary to determine if the procedure is appropriate and safe.

Breast surgery covers a wide range of procedures performed for medical reasons, such as treating cancer, and for cosmetic or reconstructive purposes. Operations can vary from removing cancerous tumors to altering the size, shape, or appearance of the breasts. Medical and preventative breast surgeries Lumpectomy: This is a breast-conserving surgery that removes only the cancerous tumor and a small margin of healthy tissue around it. Mastectomy: This procedure involves removing the entire breast, including all the breast tissue. Total (simple) mastectomy: The surgeon removes the entire breast but leaves the chest wall muscles intact. Modified radical mastectomy: The entire breast is removed along with most of the lymph nodes under the arm. Radical mastectomy: This is a more extensive procedure that removes the entire breast, chest wall muscles, and all underarm lymph nodes. Nipple-sparing mastectomy: The breast tissue is removed, but the skin, nipple, and areola are preserved, which can improve the cosmetic result of immediate reconstruction. Prophylactic (preventive) mastectomy: This surgery removes one or both breasts to prevent cancer in individuals with a very high risk, often due to a strong family history or a genetic mutation like BRCA1 or BRCA2. Lymph node surgery: This is performed to determine if cancer has spread to the lymph nodes. Sentinel lymph node biopsy (SLNB): The surgeon removes only the first one to three lymph nodes that receive drainage from the tumor. This reduces the risk of side effects like arm swelling (lymphedema). Axillary lymph node dissection (ALND): A larger number of underarm lymph nodes are removed. Surgical breast biopsy: A small sample of breast tissue is removed for laboratory testing to diagnose a potentially cancerous lump. Cosmetic and reconstructive breast surgeries Breast augmentation (Augmentation mammoplasty): This surgery increases breast size and improves shape and contour, most often using implants. It can also use fat taken from another part of the body (fat grafting). Breast reduction (Reduction mammoplasty): This procedure removes excess fat, breast tissue, and skin to reduce breast size, often to relieve physical discomfort like back, neck, and shoulder pain. Breast lift (Mastopexy): This procedure lifts and reshapes sagging breasts by removing excess skin and tightening the surrounding tissue. Breast reconstruction: This rebuilds the breast's shape following a mastectomy or lumpectomy. Implant-based reconstruction: Saline or silicone implants are used to recreate the breast mound, often in a two-stage process using a tissue expander first. Flap reconstruction (Autologous tissue reconstruction): The surgeon uses a flap of tissue, including skin, fat, and blood vessels, from another part of the body (such as the abdomen or back) to create a new breast. Nipple and areola procedures: These are used to create or reshape the nipple and areola after surgery. Considerations for breast surgery Risks: As with any surgery, risks include bleeding, infection, and reactions to anesthesia. Specific risks depend on the procedure but can include scarring, changes in sensation, and implant-related issues. Consultation: Before surgery, a patient meets with their surgeon to discuss goals, medical history, and treatment options. It is important to have realistic expectations about the results. Recovery: The recovery time depends on the specific procedure. Patients will receive post-operative instructions for wound care and activity restrictions. Support bras or bandages are often used to aid healing.

Cancer surgery can be categorized by its purpose, such as curative (to remove the tumor) or preventive (to remove tissue that could become cancerous). It can also be categorized by technique, including laparoscopic surgery, robotic surgery, and cryosurgery (using extreme cold). Other types include diagnostic, palliative, restorative, and staging surgeries. By purpose Curative surgery: Aims to remove the cancerous tumor and a margin of healthy tissue to cure the disease. Preventive surgery: Removes tissue that has not yet become cancerous but is at high risk of developing into cancer. Diagnostic surgery: Used to determine if cells are cancerous, identify the type of cancer, and find its stage. Staging surgery: A more precise form of diagnostic surgery to determine the extent to which cancer has spread. Debulking surgery: Removes as much of the tumor as possible, though not all of it. Palliative surgery: Performed at advanced stages to relieve symptoms, such as pain or discomfort, rather than cure the cancer. Supportive surgery: Similar to palliative surgery in that it is used to treat symptoms. Restorative surgery: Aims to restore the appearance or function of a body part after other cancer treatments. By technique Laparoscopic and robotic surgery: Minimally invasive techniques that use small incisions, a camera, and specialized instruments or robotic arms to remove cancerous tissue. Cryosurgery: Uses extreme cold, often with liquid nitrogen, to freeze and kill cancer cells. Mohs surgery: A specialized technique for skin cancer where thin layers of tissue are removed and examined under a microscope until no cancer cells remain. Lymphadenectomy: The removal of lymph nodes to check for cancer cells. Electrosurgery: Uses electrical currents to cut or destroy cancer cells.